[英国]Borough（wikipedia） [复制链接]

Borough

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A borough is a local government administrative subdivision used in the Canadian province of Quebec, in some states of the United States, and formerly in New Zealand. Boroughs are also to be found in the United Kingdom, more specifically in England and Northern Ireland. One also exists in Australia.

As a suffix, -borough (or -brough) appears in the name of a number of towns and cities in England; in the South of England it is usually found in the form -bury. The suffix -bury is also to be found in the New England region of the United States, whilst -burg (or -burgh) is more common in Scotland and the American South and West.

Contents[hide]

1 Pronunciation

2 Present-day boroughs

2.1 Canada

2.2 United Kingdom

2.3 The United States

2.4 Australia

3 Historical boroughs

3.1 England

3.1.1 Municipal boroughs

3.1.2 Parliamentary boroughs

3.1.3 Metropolitan boroughs

3.2 New Zealand

4 Borough as a place name

5 Etymology

6 See also

Pronunciation

In many parts of England, "borough" is pronounced as "Burrah" IPA: /bʌɹə/ (listen (help·info)) as an independent word, and as /bɹə/ when forming a suffixal part of a place-name. As a suffix, "-brough" is usually pronounced /brə/.

In the United States, "borough" is pronounced as /ˈbɝoʊ/ (or as /ˈbʌɻoʊ/ in some areas, notably New York City). When appearing as the suffix "-burg(h)" in place-names, it's pronounced as [bɝg].

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Present-day boroughs

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Canada

In Quebec, the term borough is used as the formal translation into English of the French arrondissement, an administrative subdivision of a major city.

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United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, the name "borough" is applied to various types of local government district.

For Scottish usage of a cognate term, see burgh.

In England, the metropolitan county areas are divided into metropolitan boroughs (or metropolitan districts), all of which have borough, town or city status. For example, there are 33 London boroughs, including the City of London and the City of Westminster (in England, a city is usually a town that has a cathedral instead of an ordinary parish church), which comprise the metropolitan county of Greater London.

Elsewhere in England, and in Northern Ireland, a number of district and unitary authority councils are called "borough". Historically, "borough" was a status that denoted towns with a certain type of local government (a municipal corporation). Modernly, it's just a ceremonial style the area is entitled to use, which entitles it to have a mayor. Districts may apply to the Crown for the grant of borough status upon advice of the Privy Council. City status is theoretically seen as the next step, though that status has not yet been subsequently conferred upon these historic boroughs.

The monarch has occasionally granted "royal borough" status to some boroughs - none more famously than to Bognar, which thus became "Bognor Regis," to signify it was a royal borough, not just one of your everyday communities.

Several unitary authorities in Wales are called county boroughs, but this, too, does not indicate any special status or difference in power.

The United States

The word has numerous meanings in American state and local government.

In Pennsylvania and New Jersey, the term is used the way other states sometimes use the word "town," when that word is not used as a synonym for "city"; to wit, a borough is as a self-governing municipality that is larger than a village but not populous enough to qualify for incorporation as a "city."

In Connecticut, the term is used as states like Michigan and Wisconsin use the term "village." In most American uses of the term, a village is an incoporated, partillay autonomous municipality which is subject to the supervisory authority of the township and county in which it is located. (Cities are invariably exempt from such supervisory authority in the United States.)

In some states, boroughs may be grouped together under a governing township.

The City of New York City is administratively divided into five boroughs, each of which is coextensive with an historic New York county:

· The Bronx, coextensive with Bronx County

· Brooklyn, coextensive with Kings County

· Manhattan, coextensive with New York County

· Queens, coextensive with Queens County (which, prior to amalgamation with New York City, included what was then partitioned off as Nassau County)

· Staten Island, coextensive with Richmond County

There are no county governments within New York City, but there are borough governments composed of a borough president, members of the New York City Council who represent parts of the borough, and some others. The powers of the borough governments are inferior to the powers of the city-wide government. If the borough government in Brooklyn, for example, adopted a policy that people in the other four boroughs of the city did not like, the whole City Council could effectively negate Brooklyn's position on the issue.

In Alaska, the word "borough" is used instead of "county." {See:||List of Alaska boroughs and census areas. Like any county, a borough is an administrative division of the state, but whereas most states use a three-tiered system of decentralisation - state/county/township - Alaska only has the first two tiers - state/borough. This is due to the size and nature of Alaska, especially its low population density.

Each borough in Alaska has a borough seat, which is the administrative centre for the borough. The Municipality of Anchorage is a consolidated city-borough, as are Sitka, Juneau, Haines and Yakutat. In generic terms, these consolidated city-boroughs would be "regional municipalities" as opposed to "metropolitan municipalities" (e.g., San Francisco, a city-county) - because the area is more rural in character than urban.

Most of the state, however, is part of the vast "Unorganized Borough." The best analogy is to say the "Unorganized Borough" is to Alaska what the "Northwest Territories" has historically been to Canada - in the sense that the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, as well as the Yukon and Nunavut territories, were all carved out of the Northwest Territories. Otherwise, the analogy is not perfect, because the Unorganized Borough has no borough (county) government - hence the name, "Unorganized") but is directly administered by the state government; whereas there is territorial government in the Northwest Territories.

Upon the grant of statehood in 1959, all of Alaska was "divided" into THE one, "Unorganized Borough" - which has subsequently and gradually been carved up into the several boroughs that currently exist. The framers of Alaska's constitution adopted its borough model to avoid the perceived problems with local government in the Lower 48 states. They envisioned several unorganized boroughs as mechanisms for the state to regionalize services in the Alaskan Bush, but this never materialized. Today, some most of the bush is still in the Unorganized borough parts of the Bush are now included in boroughs but most of it is still unorganized.

The whole of the Unorganized Borough is larger than the combined size of France and Germany. The federal government, for purposes of the U.S. census, has divided the Unorganized Borough into census areas for statistical purposes.

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Australia

In Australia, the term borough is an occasionally used term for a local government area. There is only one borough in Australia; The Borough of Queenscliffe in Victoria.

Historical boroughs

In its original Anglo-Saxon connection with its modern meaning, a borough was a number of households or an extended household, surrounded by a defensive wall. This might have been a stockade or a walled town. In place-names therefore, it can refer to the walled enclosure of a lord's hall or to a walled town. When the Five Burghs of the Danelaw were given that name, this was people's view of them. By the late medieval period, a charter from the king and a civic organization became more significant in defining a borough than the wall was.

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England

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Municipal boroughs

In England, boroughs developed as a method of providing a corporate identity for a town, particularly in relation to rights obtained from local barons or from the English Crown. The formal status of borough came to be conferred by Royal Charter.

These boroughs were generally governed by a self-selecting corporation (i.e., when a member died or resigned his replacement would be by co-option). Sometimes boroughs were governed by bailiffs or headboroughs.

Debates on the Reform Bill (eventually the Reform Act 1832) had highlighted the variations in systems of governance of towns, and a Royal Commission was set up to investigate the issue. This resulted, in a regularisation of municipal government in 1835, with all municipal corporations to be elected according to a standard franchise, based on property ownership. At the same time, a procedure was established whereby a town could petition Parliament to be given borough status. The 178 reformed boroughs, and those that followed them, became known as municipal boroughs. A number of unreformed boroughs remained after 1835, these being finally abolished in 1886.

The reform of county government in 1888 established the county borough, a city or town that had a corporation as any other borough, but with additional powers equivalent to those of a county council.

As part of a large-scale reform of local government in England in 1974, both county boroughs and municipal boroughs were abolished. However, the civic traditions of many boroughs were continued by the grant of a charter to their successor district councils. In smaller boroughs, a town council was formed for the area of the abolished borough, while charter trustees were formed in other former boroughs. In each case, the new body was allowed to use the regalia of the old corporation, and appoint ceremonial office holders such as sword and mace bearers as provided in their original charters. The council or trustees may apply for an Order in Council or Royal Licence to use the former borough coat of arms.

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Parliamentary boroughs

From 1265, two burgesses from each borough were summoned to the Parliament of England, alongside two knights from each county. Representation in the House of Commons was decided by the House itself, which resulted in many cases of a borough being represented in Parliament despite it having no corporation or mayor (or vice versa).

By the 19th century the population changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution had created a situation in which a major conurbation might have no representation in Parliament, whilst towns which had declined in size to mere villages still retained their seat. Additionally, the electoral franchise varied from borough to borough, some of which had become rotten boroughs.

The Reform Act 1832 sought to rationalise this system to some extent, as well as eliminating corrupt practices. Many boroughs, some of which existed in little more than name, were disenfranchised, whilst some of the industrial towns which had developed in the North came to be represented in Parliament for the first time.

Subsequent Reform Acts gave more parliamentary seats to the expanding boroughs, whilst disenfranchising the smaller ones. From 1884, voters in county and borough seats had the same franchise, so the distinction between the two was essentially eliminated; however, on the assumption that the smaller, urban boroughs would require less travelling for electoral candidates than in the larger, more rural county seats, the distinction between the two sorts of constituency was retained for the purposes of calculating maximum permitted electoral expenses.

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Metropolitan boroughs

In 1899, as part of a reform of local government in the County of London, the various parishes in the county were reorganised as a new entity, the metropolitan borough. These became reorganised as London Boroughs in a subsequent reform, in 1965.

As part of the 1974 reform of local government in England, six major urban areas were established as "metropolitan counties", subdivided into "metropolitan districts". A number of those districts over time were granted the dignity of "borough", and thus became known as a metropolitan borough.

New Zealand

New Zealand formerly used the term borough to designate self-governing towns of more than 1,000 people. A borough of more than 20,000 people could become a city by proclamation. Boroughs and cities were collectively known as municipalities, and were enclaves separate from their surrounding counties.

In the 1980s some boroughs and cities began to be merged with their surrounding counties to form districts with a mixed urban and rural population. In 1989 a nationwide reform of local government completed the process. Counties and boroughs were abolished and all boundaries were redrawn. Under the new system, most territorial authorities cover both urban and rural land. The more populated councils are classified as cities, and the more rural councils are classified as districts. Only Kawerau District, an enclave within Whakatane District, continues to follow the tradition of a small town council that does not include surrounding rural area.

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Borough as a place name

There is a neighbourhood in the London Borough of Southwark simply called The Borough, south of London Bridge across the Thames from the City. There are several villages in England, such as those in Cumbria and the East Riding of Yorkshire, called Brough, pronounced [bɹʌf].

El Burgo in Spain is across the river Ucero from the smaller City of Osma; also in Spain lies the city of Burgos. See also below under the places mentioned in the next section on Etymology.

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Etymology

The word borough has cognates in other Germanic languages. For example, burgh in Scots, burg in German, berg in Low German, and borg in both Danish and Swedish; the equivalent word is also to be found in Frisian, Dutch, Norwegian, and Icelandic. Alternate forms and spellings in English include bury and burrow.

The English borough and the Scots burgh are derived from the Anglian word burh (with other dialectal variants including burg, beorh, beorg, and byrig). The word originally indicated a fortified town, and was related to the verb beorgan (cf. Dutch and German bergen), meaning "to keep, to save, to make secure".

A number of other European languages have cognate words which were borrowed from the Germanic languages during the Middle Ages, including brog in Irish, bwr or bwrc, meaning "wall, rampart" in Welsh, bourg in French, borgo in Italian, and burgo in Spanish (hence the place-name Burgos).

Also related are the words bourgeois and belfry (both from the French), and burglar; more distantly, it is related to words meaning "hill" or "mountain" in a number of languages (cf. the second element of iceberg).

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See also

· Boroughs incorporated in England and Wales 1835 - 1882

· Boroughs incorporated in England and Wales 1882 - 1974

· Burgh

· List of burghs in Scotland

· Boroughs in New York City

有先知科普borough，挖坟一下

谢谢，我站内搜过，但是看到标题是wikipedia，以为是外部链接。

我不是科普，只是谈谈学习体会。这方面本人还在学习中，还没有到能够科普的程度。
做科普的贴，我一般会写明科普或扫盲。
我的科普是来自知乎一个贴，回头我找到链接后会贴出。

不过，这个维基百科的条目，啰啰嗦嗦介绍了那么多，等于什么也没有说。

因为三个关键的概念：“堡区”和“堡屋”—“堡民"，都没有提到。倒是看我的贴，更加科普些。
这就是当今世界，学术泡沫化的表现，论文越写越多，篇幅越写越长，有用的东西反而越来越少。而一些从事学术工作的人，还自以为是。

找到了知乎链接：
https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/370677360
成为中世纪市民的前提：堡地 burgage